Is it possible to take an ElasticSearch document ID and make an API call that will return a list of all users with access to read that document?
Specifically, I am using document level security in combination with wildcards.
No, that is not possible.
Depending on the type of authentication system you have (Native Realm/AD/SAML/etc) and the number of uses you have you might be able to build something using ES APIs, but it's not something that's provided directly.